Physical Model for a Unified Universe

 

C. Radhakrishnan

 

Abstract

Taking a cue from the three layers of reality of the universe as propounded by Advaita Vedanta and presented in the Bhagavad Gita - the kshara (perishable), the akshara (imperishable) and aksharaatheeetha (the ultimate force) – a simple physical model of a universe pervaded by the medium of akshara is outlined. Dual nature of matter, action-at-a-distance, quantization of radiation and other riddles in physics vanish and fundamental forces reveal their unity. Also, basic nature of various physical phenomena gets clarified and existing laws of physics acquire better rationale.

 

Contents:

1. Introduction

2. The pulse

3. Movement through the medium

4. The secondary pulse-let

5. Radiation

6. The fundamental forces

7. Particles and fields

8. The universe

 

 

Introduction

 

This is not an attempt to salvage the good old concept of ether. What is visualized here is totally different. It matters a lot more than all the matter in the universe.

It is assumed that brahma (also known as sath) (let us denote this stuff by S) permeates the entire universe. It is continuous, unbreakable, indestructible, non-transportable, immeasurable and unobservable (avyaktha). The word brahma literally means ‘expansive’ or ‘swelling’. It is assumed to be constituted in such a way that it can expand or contract only in volume-spiral fashion.

To understand how particles of matter are formed out of S and how these move in S, S has to be examined deeper.

As S is pliable in its own way, at any time at any given point, it is either Tough (T) or Humble (H) or Flat (F). If it is in Tough state, it has the urge to spread out. If Humble, it tends to shrink when left to itself. Flat Stuff remains idle.

It is assumed that S is pliable in its own way so that, at any time at any given point, it is either Tough (T) or Humble (H) or Flat (F). If it is in Tough state, it has the urge to spread out. If Humble, it tends to shrink when left to itself. Flat Stuff remains idle.

(1) Flat S is S in which the effort needed to shrink any part of it by any margin is equal to that needed to spread an equal part of it by the same margin.

(2) Toughness (T) of S at any place is R/r where R is the radius of the spherical equivalent of the volume that will be occupied by a volume v of radius r of S if allowed free play till it reaches Flat state. If r is unity, T = R.

(3) Humility (H) of S is the inverse if it's Toughness (T), 1/T.

(4) The Vigour (V) of S, its readiness to react, is T/H or T/1/T = TXT = RXR.

 

The Pulse

 

Let there be a small volume v of S with toughness T surrounded by S of toughness t (both values above unity). If T > t, S in v is more than that in an equal volume of S around it. The difference will be v times (T- t). Let this be denoted by D.

D naturally assumes spherical form as that is the shape capable of containing maximum in a given volume. The influence D would create in S around it depends also on the vigour of surrounding S.

What will be the fate of D? It may expand explosively (if T and/or D are that high). It may even itself out with its surroundings through repeated spread-and-shrink efforts (if T and/or D are manageable enough). It may establish resonance with its surroundings and stay pulsing (if T and/or D are conducive to that). Thus a sustainable pulse is born. To take recourse to this option, T and D must have a certain combination value or a multiple or fraction (harmonic) of that ideal value with respect to the vigour of S around. For any given surrounding S of vigour v, such resonance slots fall on either side of a point of maximum stability (combination values in excess of the ideal to one side of this point, values less than the ideal to the other). The longevity of a pulse of this kind depends on harmony with its surroundings.

The resonating pulse is the outcome of a certain measure of extra toughness in tough S (a T-in-T pulse) trying its best to even out with its surroundings but ending up resonating with it.

A particle of matter is assumed to be a 'pulse' of S. It is the simplest sustainable form – a closed loop, spreading and shrinking. S may be called empty when it is devoid of pulses. Any spreading or shrinking of pulses takes place in spirals, radial cross sections of which resemble the balance strap of a spring clock (Fig.1)

While pulsing, what different stages does it go through?

1) The extra toughness spirals out to the extent it can, pushing against the tough wall of surrounding S, and ends up as a very tough border shell at the culmination of this cycle of its action. (Fig. 2) The measure of S hemmed out by this act of expansion meanwhile accumulates into a shell of toughness just outside.

2) Pressure from the tough border outside and pull from the depleted centre together initiate a reverse cycle that culminates in a very tough core at the centre of the pulse. (Fig. 3)

3) In the course of the reverse cycle, the surrounding S, being tough, readily caves in to occupy the vacancy available, creating a gradient of declining toughness in surrounding S.

4) During the expansion cycle, the implosion of S around is undone with less enthusiasm. Surrounding S, already tough, is more eager to spread than to shrink back.

At the pinnacle of the expansion cycle, the inner shell is toughest closest to the boundary but this toughness rapidly falls along the radius of the pulse. The outer shell has a similar sharp gradient away from the borderline. The formidable wall created by the two shells repels any similar wall coming close to it because the S in between resists the build up of additional toughness.

As pulsing goes on, the ripple generated by successive implosions spreads far and wide as a jerking-in-and-slowly-leveling-up phenomenon. At any point in S around the pulse, it is felt as a fast decline of toughness in the general direction of the pulse, amounting to a momentary 'pull' towards it. Ideally, the ripple reaches out to the limits of S. But the 'push' arising in S due to the expansion cycle does not spread far, as the surrounding S is already tough. Its tendency to expand is more than its readiness to shrink.

Fig. 12 gives an approximate representation of the pulse in 3D.

Various kinds of pulsing give rise to ripples of differing nature in the surrounding S. For instance, in Humble S any pulse generates a ripple of the opposite sway and therefore it repels. The ripples in Flat S neither attract nor repel. But a tough-in-tough pulse, if it is real tough and quite large, or a humble-in-tough one with 'enough of humility' can generate a ripple mighty enough to pull in and swallow up everything around, thus appearing as a 'hole' very black. It goes without saying that pulses on one side of flat S will be mirror images of similar events on the other side of it.

Various classes and types of pulses are possible. The S in which a pulse exists in and resonates with may be Tough, Flat or Humble. Also pulse-content may be any one of the three different states of S. Again, pulses of the same class and type may, at the individual level, represent minute deviations from its class due variations in synchronization.

 

 

Movement in the medium

 

A force applied on a pulse attempts to deform it. The pulse puts up with the bother as long as it can. If and when the force proves too much, the pulse 'moves'. The spiral of toughness now develops an additional direction or vector component in its pulsing. Fig. 14 shows an example of the movement of the pulse in S.

The pulsing action alone is what shifts when a pulse moves. The event also can be viewed as an adjacent location of S claiming the action. What takes place may be called propagation of the pulse through S.

Obviously the movement of the pulse can occur in any direction depending on the force applied to it. (Fig. 15)

It is not difficult to visualize movement of the three-dimensional pulse. By the time the pulse has reached the contraction phase from the expansion phase, the pulsing action has shifted to the adjacent portion of S. In other words, the pulse has been ‘conducted’. The pulse has transferred its act to an equal volume of S next to its original position. It is the mode of movement in a continuous substrate, as the pulse is part and parcel of S.  It is similar to a whirlpool moving in water, where the adjacent water molecules take up the 'whirlpool-ness'. Thus this is the  only medium which does not contradict the findings of Michelson-Morley experiment. If the pulse shifts once, it goes on shifting because the pulse has picked up an additional mode of pulsing while getting rid of the deformity imposed on it by the force applied on it, as can be inferred from the figures. Only the associations that the pulses in a body have come to establish among themselves remain. The additional act of pulsing is kept on till it is undone by encounter with an equal and opposite force. If not, the pulse goes on doing rectification-pulsing in addition to its original heartbeat.

What decides the critical value of the force needed to move a pulse? The answer is: the bulk of the pulse and the nature of the surrounding S. The bulk is the D of the pulse. If the nature of surrounding S remains the same, this alone decides the minimum of force needed. The more the content, the greater the force needed to overcome the inertia, in direct proportion. But in S of a different vigour, the critical force needed to shift the same pulse will be different. The higher the vigour of S, the more ready it is to react and, therefore, moving a pulse therein has got to be easier.

If the force applied on the pulse persists even after the pulse gives in and starts moving, the force inflicts the deformity over and over again after every rectification beat the pulse makes. The frequency of rectification increases accordingly. The pulse is accelerated. But, how fast can the pulse ultimately move?

Beyond a limit, faster rectification pulsing begins to conflict with the primary pulsing act of the pulse. At that stage, the pulse demands greater and greater force for further increments of speed. What exactly is the physical nature of this reluctance? Naturally, the pulse cannot react faster than the vigour of S permits. For instance, the vigour of flat S, by definition, is unity. Therefore, despite any amount of force, nothing in there can move in any hurry. On the other hand, very high velocities are possible as the vigour of S grows.

At the atomic level the expansion and contraction cycles contribute to another very interesting phenomenon. When the pulse reaches the end of the expansion cycle, the S outside is exerting an action opposing the direction of the expansion spiral. But in the contraction phase the S outside is encouraging the implosion in that direction of the spiral. This gives a torque to the pulse itself, and finally overcomes the inertia to make it spin in the direction of its contraction phase. The loops of the spiral appear less in number during the expansion phase than during the contraction phase. The distance traveled by the pulse in unit time remains the same. The spin helps the pulse to stabilize in the resonance slot. The rate of spin is decided by the degree of instability created by the in-jerking S. So the speed of the spin is again determined by the vigour of S. When toughness of S increases, the spin also increases. The energy required for the spin comes from the toughness of S or its vigour, not from the pulse.

 

 

The secondary pulse-let

Suppose a T-in-T pulse lands in a region of S of lesser vigour, or the S where the pulse is declines in vigour.

1) The outer shell no longer matches the toughness of the inner one as the S encompassed by this action is of lesser vigour. The inner shell’s push outlasts it. This additional exercise stands separate because the S involved in it has a different vigour meaning different degree of readiness to react and a different set of resonance specifics. After a critical stage the extra exercise becomes an additional pulse around the mother. This is by releasing a part of its content to act out of phase with itself so that the two together can manage to achieve better resonance. (Fig. 4) Let this be called a secondary pulse-let, or a negative pulse-let. It lacks a well formed core and hence has inherent affinity for the mother for total resonance. The mother has an equal affinity for the negative pulse-let, expressed as a matching pulse-let residing within itself. This can be christened a primary pulse-let, or a positive pulse-let. (Fig 5)

2) The entire pulse now beats slower.

3) The pull exerted by the implosion, after shock absorption by the secondary or negative pulse-let, is weaker.

 

 

 

radiation

Whatever a pulse does extra is achieved while its pulsing goes on relentlessly. Donation or riddance of a bit of extra toughness by it or, to put it differently, the extraction of some toughness from it, can happen only during appropriate breathing spaces in its pulsing act. Of course, if a pulse comes to a sorry end, all it has is spilled at one stroke. This is when it splits or gets dismantled. Even then, every bit of it is taken care of and packaged by the S around, fitting all of it into various resonance slots in itself. How much of what kind into which slot at each instance is decided by the readiness of S to react, its vigour. However, the contents of these packets together will equal the content of the demised pulse.

When there is an effort on the part of any pulse, to inject some of its extra toughness into tough S, it resists the attempt. If the injection succeeds despite this, the dose injected is contained within a shell of extra toughness in S swept up by the spread of the dose injected. What if emitter pressure is checkmated by this shell and the injection stops? S now has a quantum of dynamic extra-toughness to contend with. If that quantum is sufficient to form a pulse in resonance with S, well and good, the quantum attains that status.

From the moment the emitter opens up, to the instant when emitter pressure is checkmated, the extra toughness injected into S celebrates its expansion cycle. As soon as the emission stops, the injected dose goes into reverse cycle, forced by the reaction of S. When the emitter pulse enters its very next emission effort, the new thrust pushes away the quantum of the previous emission. The newborn pulse is thus released from the mother to live in S as its resonance capability allows it.

The package delivered falls into whichever slot it fits into in S. There are several harmonics to every slot too. If the quantum delivered is tough and large enough, it succeeds in becoming an independent pulse.

When the emitter releases a small apportionment of lean content that is not enough to form an independent pulse, the outcome is different. Resistance from S prematurely checkmates emitter pressure. The quantum cannot develop into an independent pulse in S. It becomes a half-formed pulse. It does not complete its expansion cycle. It does not get the chance to complete its reverse beat either. Moreover, its premature core happens to be at the mouth of the emitter when the emitter reopens with the next round of emission. The thrust of this ejects the lean quantum from the emitter. It is given a mode of rectification pulsing (Fig. 6) that gives it a fresh lease of life, its only life. As the emitter goes on, a continuous stream of such half-formed pulses issue.

This half-formed pulse does not have an outer shell proper and so it is unable to create a ripple of consequence around it. It also has no well-formed core. It is fated to keep on doing its best to rectify the damage inflicted by the thrust of ejection. But every effort at it only shifts it by a distance equal to its size. The handicap stays on even after it makes a trillion trials. Yet, electromagnetic waves never give up till their last breath.

The electromagnetic wave, ever trying to pulse on its own but never quite making it, has no body of its own at any stage of its pulsing. Its only pulsing mode is rectification. So, it does not develop a ripple around it in S. It also does not wait at any point long enough to collect feedback from the ripple of whatever import ensuing from its rectification-pulsing. Therefore, one cannot easily control it by applying a field either. If stopped, it dies after releasing the quantum that originally went into its making.

One may look at it also from the point of view of S. S is made to suffer a disturbance to its composure when the emission is injected into it. S tries to contain the disturbance but it slips out every time it is almost caught. The vigour of the effort by S to catch the pulse-let is the same as that with which the pulse-let flaps its wings to speed away. Any frequency is possible because resonance with S is not involved. It travels as fast as the vigour of S makes it go. Its speed in any S therefore is the ultimate speed with which anything can ever move in that S. In other words, it is the index of the readiness with which the S in question can deal with a disturbance to its toughness – its vigour. Once kick-started, the speed of displacement of all electromagnetic pulse-lets in S remains the same because thereafter all these are solely controlled by nothing but the vigour of S.

As the T-and/or-D of emission increases, the emitted quantum grows capable of securing a resonance slot in S and becomes a full-formed pulse. It takes the push of repulsion from the emitter on its well-formed outer shell. The kick gives the independent pulse no more than a bearable send-off velocity and the corresponding mode of rectification pulsing.

 

 

The fundamental forces

 

Arrest a natural-born pulse in any S at the pinnacle of its expansion cycle and take a close look. Two of the fundamental forces become visible (Fig. 7). The shell-wall of the pulse constitutes the strong-nuclear force. The ripple in S present outside the pulse and all around it is the force of gravitation. In this S, it tends to jerk in, as the S outside is tough.

Move the picture by a few frames. Towards the end of the reverse cycle of the pulse, strong-nuclear force appears at the core.

As the expansion cycle of the pulse begins, the gradient caused by the implosion is being refilled. But this is done with less urgency compared to the 'rush inward' during the reverse cycle. This is because S is already tough. Its readiness to spread is a lot more than its willingness to shrink.

The surroundings of the pulse (Fig. 8) show that the ripple (gravitation) always stays put.

1) It tends to pull any similar pulse in. (Fig. 9)

2) It tends to rotate the host in the direction of the spiral of the ripple (Fig. 10). The arms of the spiral that reach the part of the host nearer to the attracting pulse are stronger than the arms that reach the farther side of the host and reach thereabouts later. The effect becomes pronounced when the affected pulse is large enough or is a large body of pulses.

3) Every part of the body of the pulse subjected to the ripple also experiences the tangential component of the spiral, deflecting it. Therefore, a free-falling body tends to circle the attracting body instead of coming straight towards it. (Fig. 10)

4) When there are many bodies orbiting a massive attracting body, gravitational force between the free-fallers tends to align them in a common plane as that is how every one of them can get closest to every one else in the course of their orbital motions.

5) If the pulses in a conglomerate are free to move within it, gravitational pull induces every pulse to place itself as close to every other of the lot. The assembly therefore assumes spherical shape.

6) Gravitation establishes itself as a series of pulse-lets around the gravitating body. They may be called g-secondary pulse-lets or graviton. (Fig.8). They grow in might as gravitational accretion gathers momentum. Changes in the gravity of the source are transmitted across g-secondary pulse-lets with a speed not more than that dictated by the vigour of S. Therefore gravitation cannot move faster than electromagnetic pulse-lets, much less act instantaneously at a distance.

7) Though the ripple ideally reaches infinite distances, in any particular case there arises a definite limit beyond which it falls short of strength to overcome the inertia of even the smallest of pulses. This limit of course fluctuates with variations in the mite of the source.

8) When there is a large spherical assembly of pulses, their ripples reinforce most at the centre. If the body is large enough, the effect may reach alarming proportions. Even the top ranking force, strong nuclear, will have to concede ground. The pulses so far fortified by it begin to get vulnerable. If the size of the conglomeration crosses a certain limit, the resultant bout of radiation shatters it. The maximum size that a conglomeration of pulses can assume without leading to such (gravitational) collapse is determined by the vigour of S in which it forms. In S of a different vigour this limit will of course be different.

9) If the conglomeration is very large, the ripple emanating from it may get strong enough to affect even rectification pulse-lets (electromagnetic radiation) passing by. The effect becomes more noticeable as the pulse gets closer to the conglomerate. The radiation is bent inward.

There is just one fundamental force in the universe.

 

 

particles and fields

 

Let us assume that in a certain region of tough S there is thinning going on. How do the pulses already present in the area take to this? These pulses are the progeny of tough S of a different vigour. Their pulsing is attuned to that environment.

Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 are pictures of a survivor. Why this type of pulse instead of a 'natural-born' one? Does this mean that the S around us (this part of the universe) has already declined in vigour? Of course, yes. The why and how of it will be discussed in the section pertaining to the big bang. The present pulse is different from when it pulsed as a natural-born in S of an appropriately higher vigour (Fig. 2 and 3). It is now donning secondary pulse-lets, the add-ons necessitated by progressive decline in the vigour of S.

In the periodic table, right from No.1 to the last, all elements are out of tune with S. Probably, all enjoyed appropriate slots in the S that begot them. Out-of-tune-ness increases progressively, necessitating shells after shells of secondary pulse-lets.

Though pulses repel each other at close range, they get close enough for the comfort of shared shells of secondary pulse-lets. However, even such shared shells often fail to provide satisfactory resonance. So a third pulse and a fourth and so on are welcome. When such a group finds the resonance of it somewhat satisfactory, there are no more vacancies. The number that fits in depends on the individual nature of incompleteness (valencies) joining in. The perfectly covered is not taken into any fold, nor does it need any company. In some cases, a little warming up or pressurizing is necessary. Once a grouping is established it is not easy to break it if the resonance derived from the arrangement is appreciable. If not, even minor inducements may make the members of the group give up the arrangement, disperse and try afresh.

The resonance slots of the pulses depend on slots for the primary pulse-let.

A). Resonance slots for the primary pulse-let:

1). Vertical.

These correspond to the periodic table slots. Hydrogen is the smallest primary resonance slot.

The affinity for the electron pulse-let is termed a positive charge. It is a unit charge as the primary pulse is satisfied with a single electron pulse-let. However, the affinity varies for different pulse-lets or different elements. Similarly the electron pulse-let has the same affinity for the core with its full pulsation. This affinity is the negative charge. Pulse-lets that have affinity to either of these two for reasons of their resonance needs are called charged particles. (This is just an example, the fit is still not exact in the hydrogen atom. This ‘less-than-desirable’ status in this respect leads to a small dipole movement.)

2). Horizontal.

These slots are added by quanta of neutron pulses. They represent the isotope slots.

The neutron has no primary or secondary pulse-lets, and hence no charge. This is the model of the pulse begotten in ancient, tougher S. This pulse is out-of-tune for stable pulsing in this S now, as the S has declined in toughness. It is not in resonance with the first slot here and now, the hydrogen slot. So the pulsation of the independent neutron becomes progressively out of tune that after a few minutes, the pulse modifies its internal structure and releases the primary pulse-let, the secondary pulse-let, and a lean quantum of humble vigour, in the form of an antineutrino pulse-let. The fate of the neutron pulse is a very important indicator of what would have taken place on a large scale billions of years ago. From the model it is inferred that all the elements present now, in this part of the universe, have formed as a result of decay, as every one of them has secondary pulse-lets. A rough measure of how much the vigour of S has gone down is indicated by the relative size of the nucleus (primary pulse-let) with the size of its buffers (secondary pulse-lets or electron pulse-lets). The secondary pulse-let appears distributed in a wide area from the primary pulse-let to the periphery.  It is more versatile to the changes in vigour of the surrounding S because it has no core. It also has no sharply defined outer border, as this border is involved in pulsing, resulting in jerking-in and jerking-out motion. The dynamic model of the pulse also predicts it impossible to fix the position and momentum of the electron pulse-let. A wide range of probable values for its position and momentum can be obtained.

Two primary pulse-lets make a compound; a larger primary pulse-let makes a heavier element. In the model of the pulse, a heavier element is not seen as a group of individual primary pulse-lets or as an aggregation of protons and neutrons. It is just a larger primary pulse-let. The quanta that has gone into the making of this larger pulse-let is, of course, additions of the smaller resonance slots.

In the periodic table there is a long list of elements. How were these many various kinds of pulses made in the first place? Hydrogen fuses with itself and the products of this fusion again fuse and so on in the interiors of stars. But how does one account for the heavier elements? The proneness for fusion goes in reverse gear and becomes the readiness for fission after a critical point on the periodic table.

One guess that stands reasonable scrutiny is that all elements were natural products in S of a higher vigour. The elements were born out of emission issuing into that S from mother-packages of still higher vigour. All of the very heavy elements were born this way. There must have been extra heavy elements too. When the vigor of S declined after the big bang, the heavier elements began falling out of tune. The top-heavy were the first to crack up. Meanwhile, all elements developed secondary pulse-lets. Chemical bonding began and was aided wherever necessary by radiation. Stellar interiors fused light elements and suns blossomed showering more radiation.  

The neutron is naturally formed only when the toughness of S increases to welcome that resonance slot, or when that quantum is necessary for a horizontal resonance slot of a higher element. The sun can be taken as an example for the first, where the vigour of S is tougher in the centre due to the jerk-in gravitational pulse-lets. In the sun neutron has a 'production half-life', the reverse of what is happening here on earth.

If the vigour of S continues to go down, there is shift of the horizontal slots to the right. More neutron quanta are converted to proton quanta, more compounds form with stronger bonding, gravitational force goes weaker, and the less heavy elements also become prone to decay. The charge difference (affinity) between the nucleus and the electron pulse-lets will increase, yet more and more electron pulse-lets will be formed from the nucleus. When the vigour increases, there is shift to the left and more neutron quanta are formed as electron pulse-lets return to the nucleus. The charge difference (affinity) between the nucleus and the electron pulse-lets will decrease. The number of compounds will come down, gravitational force will increase, and larger elements in the periodic table will form and stabilize. Visualize a place of still higher vigour and we get a glimpse of a hostile world - huge hot suns, tremendous explosions, unbearable gravitational pull, very high temperature (yet stable pulses), super heavy elements, and high energy, ultra-penetrating radiation.

The beta decay represents a change in the entire primary pulse in which the out-of-tune quantum is converted to form a pulse with stable primary and secondary. For some nuclei, the reverse process occurs. It depends on the horizontal resonance slots. Electron capture is a decay mode for isotopes that will occur when there are too many proton quanta in the primary of an atom and insufficient energy to emit a positron. If the energy difference between the parent atom and the daughter atom is quite low, electron capture is the decay mode.

Decays producing higher energy ‘load shedding’ emit the quanta through gamma radiation rectification pulse-lets.

The corresponding antimatter pulses are naturally formed in S having the reverse vigour, i.e., in humble S (H-in-H pulses). The different states of vigour of S are discussed in the section about the universe. The humble S, the flat S and the tough S form the three worlds in this universe. In this part of the universe, the lacking of vigour (humble vigour) is emitted as antimatter, and the extra vigour (vigour of toughness) is emitted as its counterpart.

Split the nucleus and we get individual stable or unstable quanta with possible resonance slots. Split them still further and we get thoroughly unstable quanta with very short-lived resonance slots. Naturally, beyond a point, a pulse-let cannot be split to form smaller pulse-lets as it interfered with its basic pulsing action.

B). Completeness of the secondary

This is not a requirement for stability of the total pulse. The 'humbler' secondary pulse-lets have to ‘relate’ to the ‘needs’ of the primary-pulse-let. They act as 'buffers' between the primary pulse-let and the surrounding S. But the ‘content’ in most orbitals of secondary pulse-lets happens to be either wanting or in excess to complete the orbital resonance slots defined by S. The secondary pulse-let orbitals are classic examples of ‘barely workable’ compromises when the vigour of S came down. The slots are obvious. Stable pulses may or may not be complete pertaining to the secondary pulse-lets. The so-called inert gases are examples of those having completed orbitals of secondary pulse-lets. (Actually no pulse is completely resonant or inert, as there is at least a minimal amount of out-of-tune-ness with the surrounding S.) The pulses just before and just after these gases in the periodic table, as a consequence, are highly reactive with respect to their affinities for the electron pulse-let. The multiple secondary pulse-let orbitals represent various energy levels with respect to their proximity to the primary pulse-let. The chemical properties of the pulse depend on the secondary pulse-lets.

To get a view of the electro-weak force, just observe the pulses suffering from depletion of vigour of surrounding S. Such a pulse has two parts (Fig. 4 and 5). 1) The primary pulse-let.  2) The secondary pulse-let. The electro-weak forces reside in these two and exhibit itself through transactions between the two.

The rest of the pulse model is similar to the present orbital model with the s p d and f energy levels, except for certain perceptional differences. For example, pairing of electrons with opposite spins mean pairing of an electron pulse-let in the expansion phase with another in the contraction phase. The spin is always in the direction of the contraction phase. This mode of pairing also caters to the contraction-expansion phases of the nucleus as layers of 'oscillations' of the secondary shells in the contraction and expansion phases.

The primary pulse tends to adjust the electron-pulse-let with another pulse for completeness, without compromising on its stability. This is done through sharing or donating the pulse-let. Therefore compounds are formed by the interactions of this particular quantum, the electron pulse-let.

The way the electron pulse-let acts merits special attention. It moves in a circumferential manner around the primary pulse-let in the contraction and expansion phases. It also has other modes of momenta – the jerk-in and jerk-out motions - along with a certain angulation in its path, as the path is spiral. And we have seen the spin. Obviously these modes of movement are attributed to every portion of the pulse, not only to the electron pulse-let. Different quanta obtained from various parts of the pulse may show all these modes of movement, or may represent some of them.

Pulse-lets with charge produce corresponding ripple pulse-lets in the surrounding S (R pulse-lets for short). They are also conducted in the direction of their movement at production. In an electric field the R pulse-lets are produced by the charge or affinity of the secondary pulse-lets, and correspond to them. That is why charged particles react to these R pulse-lets. When the primary pulse is distorted to one side and the secondary pulse to the other by a strong electric field, it leads to the birth of an electric dipole, which is indicated by the magnitude of the charge times the distance between them.

R pulse-lets are also induced by the momentum of the secondary pulse-lets.

The R magnetic pulse-lets induced in S by certain elements are very strongly resonant, or amplified. Such ‘momentum R pulse-lets’ form the magnetic field. These elements are all close to each other in their resonance slots in the periodic table, viz., manganese, iron, cobalt and nickel. A smaller group also comes in the lanthanide series, viz., europium, gadolinium and dysprosium. When multiple pulses are aligned, a strong magnetic field is created, and the block of the pulses becomes a magnet. Remnance is by locking of the alignment by the reinforcement of R pulse-lets. The arrangement is stable at suitable temperatures.

In such a strong field, a current is induced by constantly moving a permanent magnet in and out of a coil of wire, or by constantly moving a conductor near a stationary permanent magnet. The R pulse-lets in this case are cut and they flow as individual electron pulse-lets.

Since mass can be understood as the unit of pulsing-vigour-difference in S in this model, theoretically every pulse or pulse-let has mass. It may be very negligible in the case of a photon or the neutrino. Wave and particle are not treated differently in the model, because they are neither – they are pulses. In other words, every particle can be considered a standing wave and every wave a moving particle. And since E=mc ², the pulsing-vigour-difference is, simply, energy.

Further explanation into all the phenomena of micro particles are either self-evident or can be easily derived from the model. It is practically impossible to consider all of them in a presentation of this nature.

When there are many bodies orbiting a massive attracting body, like in the solar system, gravitational attraction between the orbiting bodies tend to align them in a common plane. The spiral component reinforces so that it influences all the pulse-lets in these bodies. Thus the primary pulse-lets are always aligned with their axis of spin perpendicular to the spiral. (The plane of the in-jerking spiral component of the graviton corresponds roughly to the equator.) Free or unpaired electron pulse-lets are also influenced to a lesser extend by the graviton. Therefore, ideally the magnetic field vector should be perpendicular to the equator. But this may not always be the case, as the electron pulse-lets are more influenced by electromagnetic field than by gravitons, as they have no core.

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The universe

From what we know of pulses, the universe can be safely considered one. As in the microcosm, so it is with the macrocosm. The universe is the biggest of pulses imaginable. But the pulsing action of the universe involves a time-scale so large that one may see no appreciable part of the action even if one waits for a couple of centuries. One way to observe it is to imagine a small-scale video model that goes conveniently faster. Let it be at the start of the expansion cycle. The super-tough S at the core is too tough to harbour any pulse within it. Matter in any known form is non-existent. This means no gravitation, nuclear interactions, electromagnetic phenomenon, time and motion. It is S of near-infinite vigour. It resembles the super-condensation just prior to the big bang.

In the normal course it should be the explosion of explosions next. But, instead of exploding, it is spreading in a spiral.

In the next scene, every point on the expanding spiral has become an emitter (Fig. 11). Pulses small and big appear as whirls and swirls in the wake of the spread of the super core.

There is a flood of radiation pulses. Suddenly, there is light, the brilliance of a trillion suns.

Gradually, the spread increases in radius. In its wake, more pulses are tumultuously born. And then, in areas the front has passed, in accordance with the decline of the vigour of S, secondary pulse-lets form, large pulses crack up. Pulses also radiate and attract each other.

The advancing front does not carry away with it any of the pulses it hatches. The pulses generate more pulses but everything that takes shape continues to remain practically where it is, in whichever association it has meanwhile developed with its kith or kin, drifting only with whatever velocity it has imbibed at birth or by association later, namely, attraction and/or repulsion.

The figure on the right shows a spiral galaxy.

It is this unique behavior of the core of the super pulse during its expansion cycle that gives the impression that there is an explosion taking place. The expanding spiral emanating from the super-tough core is almost explosive but it is invisible till pulses, small and big, begin to issue forth in its wake — almost like a jet plane, flying too high to be seen or heard, reveals its course by a fabulous trail.

Whirls and pulses of all dimensions, regions of S of varying in vigour and radiation of all descriptions are created as the spiral advances. All observed phenomenon from quasars to black holes are possible out of various vigours of S. But on the heels of this sweep follows a general decline of vigour. The toughness of S at any region slowly falls after the spiral onslaught of expansion passes it.

So man and his abode is HERE, a point on the way of the onslaught of the spiral after it has passed the spot. There was no matter here before the spiral came this way. The onslaught of the spiral created everything. After it passed, the vigour of S here began to decline. The heavier pulses are falling apart. Every primary pulse created earlier has developed secondary pulse-lets.

Naturally, the physical constants and fundamental units of our region are not applicable except for here and now. Their values do not relate to anything anywhere else or at any other time. Strictly speaking, the vigour of S is not the same even at two adjacent points or instances of time anywhere in the universe.

Can't the observed red shift come about for reasons other than physical expansion of the universe? For instance, what happens to electromagnetic or any other radiation if, after originating in S of a higher vigour, it undertakes time-consuming travel and reaches a region of S the vigour of which is considerably less?

The vigour of S is the readiness of S to react to attempts at alteration of its toughness. A pulse of electromagnetic radiation is a rectification-pulse depending entirely on the readiness of S to pulse. When the vigour declines the action-reaction-act slackens. In a region of S of lesser vigour, a rectification-pulse that originated in S of a higher vigour flaps its wings slower. In other words it has assumed a longer wavelength. The more distant a galaxy, the greater the time the pulse has taken to arrive. Our S has meanwhile declined in vigour by that much more. This means the pulse originated in an environment of vigour comparatively that much higher. Take the pulse back to S of that vigour and it will flap its wings as fast as it did at birth. This also means most of the radiation observed today manifests itself differently from what it was at birth as any radiation destined to suffer a major decline in the vigour of S surrounding it changes beyond recognition. It can be safely assumed that a good part of radio frequencies and microwave being received now originated as parts of the visible spectrum in S of higher vigour. The more distant the source, the farther one is from the truth. That is not all. Radiation coming through areas of very low vigour may take ages to reach here, if at all. Moreover, radiation from beyond a certain vigour-difference will never reach man and his world.

What man sees is a very small part of the universe. But this small part where the vigour of S can be considered to remain more or less uniform (over short periods of time) is so very big and apparently 'permanent' that man has enough of a sight with as much depth as he can exhaustively probe. Man is yet to reach the limits of even this small part of the universe.

On its own the universe renews its interior décor at every cycle of pulsing. Is every cycle of the universe an exact replica of the one before it? Well, that depends on what external factors influence our universe. This in turn points to the nature of its surroundings, the S in which this universe of ours pulses. Any change in the vigour of that S has consequences in here. Are there other pulses of the same kind or of any other kind around us? If there are, what their pulsing may do to us also has to be taken into account. Common sense suggests that our universe cannot be alone. No pulse like this one can exist in isolation. It becomes necessary to assume that some S with a lot of similar pulses in it exists around our universe.

Microcosm or macrocosm, S is continuous whichever way one looks. It loops on itself, gets tough or goes humble, but is never broken, disrupted, transformed or destroyed. Neither can it remain idle in any pulse anywhere in the universe or in any universe for that matter.

According to the definitions laid down at the beginning of this overview, the vigour of S is the square of its toughness. This, in turn, is the radius of the volume that will be occupied by a unit-radius volume of the S if allowed to spread to its flat state. Later, while discussing radiation pulses, it was observed that the speed with which they travel is a manifestation of the vigour of the S in which they move. In other words, speed of light is a measure of the vigour of the S through which it travels. A constellation appearing a certain number of light-years away may not in fact be at a corresponding number of actual earth-miles away. Variations in the vigour of S through which the radiation passes surely affects also the speed of propagation of the pulses arriving.

The vigour of S decides the nature of every physical event in it. Any physical parameter remains invariant just as long as the vigour of S does not change. As and when it changes, all physical parameters together get altered so as to make the resulting picture appear the same as before, meaning that no absolute value can be ascribed to the speed of light or any physical constant. This need not cause much concern. Every law established on the basis of universal invariants will continue to hold good here for a while and also will appear to hold good anywhere in the universe except in the case of what are known as discontinuities. But the action of every pulse involves vigour values bordering on the infinite and these states are discontinuities. The hard outer shell and the hard core of a pulse are singularities. This is why laws based on invariant vigour of S fail to unify the forces or reconcile the laws for the macrocosm with those for the microcosm.

The life of any pulse (any particle of matter) in the universe is related to the change of vigour of S in which it pulses. Again, at any point within any pulse, the vigour goes on changing. In the large pulse that is the universe, at any point in it, the same thing happens. So time can also be reckoned on the basis of change in the vigour of S.

 

The time scale of the observed universe is such that it changes with the vigour of S. As the vigour of S comes down, the speed of light also comes down. However the perceived time remains the same for any individual, and for every instrument that measures the time. Therefore this time scale can be called the apparent time, and for everything in the observed universe, it is applicable. This apparent time starts at the point where the first pulse is manifest at the big bang. 

The time scale of the Stuff may be called actual time. It begins before many spiral bangs than the one of ours. It decides the time between the expansion and contraction events of S at the large scale. The apparent time is dependent on the actual time also, because this is the true time scale in which everything in the observed universe is manifested and un-manifested.

The change of vigour of S at any point within a pulse can be in two mutually opposite directions – increasing vigour or decreasing. If one is called forward, the other is to be called backward. At the centre of the pulse and close to its border where the vigour of S alternates between infinite toughness and infinite humbleness, the change of vigour first ‘moves’ in one direction, turns around and then goes the opposite way. The arrow of it can be visualized as ‘turning back’. This may help us get a glimpse into what are hitherto known as the no-man’s land of singularities where all known laws of physics are supposed to break down.

 

 

Acknowledgements

Prof. I. G. Bhaskara Panicker (Zamorin's College, Calicut), Dr. M. K. Vainu Bappu (Astrophysical Observatory, Kodaikanal), Dr. Anna Mani (Pune station of World Wide Seismology System), Dr. C. P. Menon and Dr. Babu Joseph (CUSAT) offered encouragement during various stages of the evolution of this concept spreading over four decades. Dr. C. P. G. Vallabhan, Head, Department of Physics, CUSAT, allowed himself, his collegues and his students to be exposed to the idea and helped evolve a meaningful interaction. Dr. K. R. Gopal helped with research. Mrs. Subhadra Gopal generated the graphics.